Emerging evidence implies that cannabis may potentially relieve neuropathic pain. The 1997 National Institutes of Health (NIH) Workshop on medical cannabis concluded: “Neuropathic pain represents a treatment problem for which currently available analgesics are, at best, marginally effective. Since delta-9-THC is not acting by the same mechanism as either opioids or NSAIDs [nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs], it may be useful in this inadequately treated type of pain.” (18)

Writing in Drug and Alcohol Review, Drs. Linda Growing et al. concluded that cannabis could hold potential as a treatment for neuropathic pain. They noted: “A few animal studies support the idea that cannabinoids may have analgesic action in neuropathic pain. Given that this is the type of pain for which current treatments are least satisfactory, this would appear to be an area of greatest potential for cannabis, perhaps as an adjuvant to a regime of standard analgesics.” (19) Growing and colleagues also found that cannabis has psychoactive, anti-convulsant, and cardiovascular effects similar to those drugs currently recommended for neuropathic pain. They speculated that “cannabis might act in similar ways to these drugs in producing analgesia for neuropathic pain.” (20)

The House of Lords Science and Technology Committee described cannabis’ ability to treat both traditional and neuropathic pain, (21) noting that it’s analgesic effects justified rescheduling the drug so physicians could legally prescribe it. (22) They concluded that “there is scientific evidence that cannabinoids possess pain-relieving properties, and some clinical evidence to support their medical use in this indication.” (23) Similarly, the British Medical Association (BMA) concluded that “the prescription of … THC and other cannabinoids … should be permitted for patients with intractable pain.” (24)

Evidence indicates that inhaled cannabis and cannabinoids appears to be suitable alternatives for patients suffering from various types of chronic pain, especially those suffering from neuropathic pain that is unresponsive to traditional analgesics like opioids and NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). In addition, cannabis may offer fewer negative side effects than opioids, which can be addictive, and NSAIDS, which can induce stomach ulcers, bleeding, and kidney failure. Another potential benefit of cannabis as a pain reliever is that patients can precisely control the dose they take into their bodies by titration, and experience more rapid relief than they can with oral medications.

J. Joy et al., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), Chapter 4, Section 4.4 (uncorrected proofs copy). http://bob.nap.edu/books/0309071550/html/
B. Zimmerman et al., Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You: A Factual Guide to Medical Uses of Marijuana, New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing (1998), 102.
National Institutes of Health, “Workshop on the Medical Utility of Marijuana: Report to the Director,” Washington, D.C. (1997). http://www.medmjscience.org/Pages/reports/nihpt3.html
W. Hall, et al., The Health and Psychological Consequences of Cannabis Use, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service (1994): 194. http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/home.htm
R. Noyes et al., “The analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 18 (1975): 84-89.
R. Noyes et al., “Analgesic effect of delta-9-tertahydrocannabinol,” Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 15 (1975): 139-143.
M. Staquet et al., “Effect of a nitrogen analog of tetrahydrocannabinol on cancer pain.” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 23 (1978): 397-401.
R. Noyes, D. Baram. “Cannabis analgesia” Compr. Psychiatry 15 (1974): 531.
D. Petro. “Marihuana as a therapeutic agent for muscle spasm and spasticity.” Psychosomatics 21 (1980): 81-85.
R. El-Mallakh. “Marijuana and migraine.” Headache 27 (1987): 442-443.
M. Maurer et al. “Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol shows antispastic and analgesic effects in a single case double-blind trial.” European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 240 (1990): 1-4.
A. Holdcroft et al. “Pain relief with oral cannabinoids in familial Mediterranean fever.” Anasthesia 5 (1997): 483-486.
R. Callahan, “How Does Marijuana Kill Pain?” Associated Press, October 4, 1998. http://www.mapinc.org/drugnews/v98/n868/a07.html
I. Meng et al. “An analgesic circuit activated by cannabinoids.” Nature 395 (1998): 381-383. Http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v395/n670.../395381a0_r.htm
Society for Neuroscience Press Conference, October 26, 1997. http://www.calyx.com/%7Eolsen/MEDICAL/POT/analgesia.html
A. Calignano et al., “Control of pain by endogenous cannabinoids,” Nature 394 (1998): 277-281.
“Science: Cannabinoid/anandamide-receptor systems involved in peripheral control of pain,” ACM Bulletin, July 26, 1998. http://www.acmed.org/english/bulletin260798.html
National Institutes of Health, “Workshop on the Medical Utility of Marijuana: Report to the Director. http://www.medmjscience.org/Pages/reports/nihpt3.html
L. Growing et al., “Therapeutic use of cannabis: clarifying the debate,” Drug and Alcohol Review 17 (1998): 445-452.
Ibid.
House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, “Ninth Report,” London: United Kingdom (1998): Chapter 5, Section 5.26-5.30. http://www.parliament.thestationeryoffice.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldselect/ldsctech/151/15101.htm
House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, Press Release, November 11, 1998. http://www.parliament.thestationeryoffice.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldselect/ldsctech/151/151p01.htm
House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, “Ninth Report,” Chapter 5, Section 5.30.
Ibid., Section 5.26.
--

Neuropathy pain…

-
Neuropathic pain (pain from nerve damage) and severe, uncontrollable muscle spasms are typical results of spinal cord illness or injury. Growing evidence indicates that cannabis may ameliorate both of these symptoms in patients suffering from spinal cord injuries.

A review of the medical literature finds at least four references to the use of cannabis and cannabinoids for this condition. A 1974 study examined cannabis' perceived effects on several common symptoms of spinal cord injury on ten patients who admitted using cannabis after they had been injured. It found that "the perceived decrease in pain and spasticity shown by this survey indicates that better controlled studies would be worthwhile." (1)

A 1982 survey of spinal cord injury patients in VA hospitals found that 56 percent of respondents smoked cannabis and 88 percent of them reported it reduced their muscle spasms. (2) A 1986 study of five patients with traumatic paraplegia (a weakening or paralysis of muscles in the lower body caused by disease or injury in the lower part of the spinal cord) found the administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) "clinically beneficial" in controlling two of the patients' intractable spasticity. (3) In 1990, three Swiss neurologists reported on the treatment of a paraplegic patient suffering from painful spasms in his leg. Researchers wrote: "A double-blind study was performed comparing 5 mg of THC, 50 mg of codeine, and a placebo in a patient with spasticity and pain due to spinal cord injury. The three conditions were applied 18 times each in a randomized and balanced order. Delta-9-THC and codeine both had an analgesic effect in comparison with placebo. Only delta-9-THC showed a significant beneficial effect on spasticity." (4) Researchers also noted that the dosages of THC used in the study did not induce euphoria. (5) They concluded that the drug's efficacy in treating spasticity was so strong that it should be considered in the treatment of paraplegics. (6)

In their 1999 report, "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base," researchers at the Institute of Medicine (IOM) acknowledged that anecdotal evidence and animal studies imply that cannabis may help spinal cord injury patients. They wrote, "There are numerous anecdotal reports that marijuana can relieve the spasticity associated with spinal cord injury, and animal studies have shown that cannabinoids affect motor areas in the brain - areas that might influence spasticity." (7)

M. Dunn et al., "The Perceived Effects of Marijuana on Spinal Cord Injured Males," Paraplegia 12 (1974): 175.
J. Malec et al., "Cannabis Effect on Spasticity in Spinal Cord Injury," Archives of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 63 (1982): 116-118 as cited by Dale Gieringer Ph.D., "Review Of Human Studies On Medical Use Of Marijuana," Dale Gieringer, Ph.D., (1996).
W. Hanigan et al., "The Effect of Delat-9-THC on Human Spasticity," American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics (1986): 198
M. Maurer, "Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Shows Antispastic and Analgesic Effects in a Single Case Double-blind Trial," European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 240 (1990): 1-4.
Ibid.
L. Grinspoon et al., "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), New haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997): 100.
J. Joy et al., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), 160.

Night Vision:

Administration of cannabis improves night vision in a dose-dependent manner, according to the findings of a case study to be published in the July, 2004 issue of the Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Researchers administered oral THC to one individual; analogous field studies were performed on three separate subjects before and after smoking cannabis. All four subjects were field-tested for night vision with a Scotopic Sensitivity Tester.

"In both test situations, improvements in night vision measures were noted after THC or cannabis," the authors found. "The current study supports the previous ethnobotanical observations that cannabis may improve night vision," they concluded. "This effect seems to be dose-dependent and cannabinoid-mediated." :Abstract.

Phantom limb pain…

-
Dr. Lester Grinspoon defines phantom limb pain in Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine the following way: "Almost everyone who has had a limb amputated experiences sensations that are interpreted by the brain as though they came from the missing (phantom) limb. In two-thirds of the cases these sensations include persistent pain, usually of a cutting, stabbing, or pricking nature." (1) This condition afflicts roughly 30 percent of all amputees and is typically treated ineffectively by standard analgesics. The medical literature reveals one uncontrolled case study of a women effectively treating her phantom limb pain with 10 mg of oral THC (Dronabinol) twice a day. (2)

The analgesic properties on cannabis and cannabinoids are described in detail in the pain section. As noted there, neuropathic pain is particularly amenable to treatment with cannabis-based medicines.

The House of Lords Science and Technology Committee acknowledged cannabis' ability to treat symptoms of phantom limb pain. They determined: "Pain which originates from damaged nerves might respond to cannabinoids. An example of such pain is phantom limb pain following amputation. There is anecdotal evidence that cannabis can relieve this pain and trials of cannabis should be undertaken in such patients." (3)

L. Grinspoon et al, "Marihuana the Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), New haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997), 200.
Ibid., 200-202.
House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, "Ninth Report," London: United Kingdom (1998): Chapter 5, Section 5.27.
--

In addition to analgesia, three studies confirm anti-inflammatory properties as well. Patients with conditions such as rheumatoid or osteoarthritis should know that English researchers conclude "Our results would suggest that cultivation of Cannabis plants rich in CBD and other phenolic substances would be useful … for medicinal purposes in the treatment of certain inflammatory disorders" because these therapeutic benefits were linked to the cannabinoid CBD (cannabidiol) which is only available in the herb Cannabis sativa.

Fibromyalgia…

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Fibromyalgia is a condition characterized by generalized aching and specific joints that induce pain. Symptoms of the disease include stiffness in the neck, shoulders, and trunk that may be further aggravated by movement. Some sufferers of the disease also experience disrupted sleep patterns and morning fatigue. Fibromyalgia patients typically take anti-inflammatory drugs to treat symptoms of the disease. (1)

Although no specific clinical data exists on cannabis' ability to combat symptoms of fibromyalgia, some patients report anecdotally that the drug benefits them. In Iowa, a court judge allowed fibromyalgia patient Allen Helmers to use cannabis while on probation to effectively treat his chronic pain. (2)

It is likely that cannabis alleviates some symptoms of fibromyalgia. Cannabis' potential as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory (see "pain, arthritis" sections) have been documented by the Institutes of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, and others. Additionally, cannabis has a long history as a sleep-inducing drug. (3) One study of 15 insomniac patients reported that over a five week period "sleep quality was significantly influenced by 160 mg of cannabidiol [a non-psychoactive cannabinoid a.k.a. CBD] as two-thirds of the subjects slept more than seven hours [and] … most subjects had few interruptions of sleep." (4) An Italian research team reported that subjects who inhaled cannabis within the last half hour had significantly higher melatonin levels than those who abstained. (5) Melatonin, a hormone produced by the pineal gland, is widely used to treat insomnia.

http://www.drkoop.com/conditions/encyclopedia/articles/006000a/006000060.html
"Use of Medical Marijuana Not a Probation Violation, Iowa judge affirms," NORML Foundation News Release, September 4, 1997.
L. Grinspoon et al., "Marihuana: the Forbidden medicine" (second edition), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997), 167-168.
E. Carlini et al., "Hypnotic and Antiepileptic Effects of Cannabidiol," Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 21 (1981): 417S-427S.
"New Book Links Marijuana To Melatonin Production," NORML Foundation News Release, August 28, 1997.
--

Crohn's disease is a chronic, inflammatory condition in the gastro-intestinal tract associated with ulcers, bleeding, scarring, intestinal blockage, cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite and weight. Medical management consists of anti-inflammatory drugs and surgery. Patients report relief from Cannabis, which has been shown to increase appetite, relieve nausea, relax spasms, and reduce inflammation. Similarly, a case study of ulcerative colitis documents the healing potential of Cannabis. Researchers state that in this case smoking Cannabis twice a day provides more effective relief than prescription medications. "She noted that smoking marijuana resulted in fewer stools, more stable body weight, and fewer, milder exacerbations.” Dexanabinol, a synthetic analog of the cannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) when given to rats with ulcerative colititis "significantly reduced the anorexia and the colonic inflammation associated with this condition compared with untreated rats."

Eating disorders…

-

Survey data beginning in 1970 demonstrated a strong relationship between inhaling marijuana and increased appetite. (1) This data also found a majority of cannabis users reporting that "marijuana made them enjoy eating very much and that they consequently ate a lot more." (2) Cannabis is also documented to enhance the sensory appeal of foods. (3)

Several human trials have established cannabis' ability to stimulate food intake and weight gain in healthy volunteers. (4) Dr. Leo Hollister of the Veterans Administration Hospital in Palo Alto, California presided over two separate experiments that found "total food intake, as well as reports of hunger and appetite, are increased … after oral administration of marihuana." (5) A later trial of 27 cannabis smokers and ten controls concluded that marijuana smokers ate more and gained more weight than non-smokers after 21 days in a hospital research ward. The cannabis smoking group immediately began eating less after ceasing their marijuana use. (6)

A pair of John Hopkins University (Baltimore, Maryland) studies conducted during the 1980s also illustrated cannabis' profound affect on appetite. The first, by Dr. Richard Foltin et al. concluded that administering two or three marijuana cigarettes to nine volunteers residing in a residential laboratory increased their daily caloric intake. Foltin reported that "the increased intake was due to an augmentation of calories consumed as between-meal snack items rather than an increase in meal size." (7) A 1988 study by Foltin et al. of six adult males living in a residential laboratory found that smoking cannabis increased their total daily caloric intake by 40 percent. Foltin also noted that "increases in body weight during periods of active marijuana smoking were greater than predicted by caloric intake alone." (8)

Additional trials also demonstrated the effectiveness of oral THC (Marinol) as an appetite stimulant in patients suffering from AIDS-related appetite loss, including one study in which 70 percent of patients taking it gained weight. (9) These trials persuaded the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to approve Marinol as an appetite stimulant in 1992.

It is likely that cannabis' appetite enhancing and anti-anxiety properties may play a role in treating psychologically induced eating disorders like anorexia nervosa. However, the sole double-blind clinical trial performed on this patient population found that cannabis elicited a negative psychological reaction in three of the 11 participants (10). Researchers speculated that this reaction was because "THC increases appetite and thus intensifies the mental conflict between hunger and food refusal." (11) However, because anorexia respond to standard treatments poorly and have high mortality rates, cannabis may still remain an option to patients suffering from this disorder.

National Institutes of Health, "Workshop on the Medical Utility of Marijuana, Report to the Director," Washington, D.C. (1997).
Ibid.
Ibid.
"Review of Human Studies on the Medical use of Marijuana," Dale Gieringer, Ph.D. (1996).
L. Hollister, "Hunger and appetite after single doses of marihuana, alcohol, and dextroamphetamine," Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12 (1971): 44-49.
I. Greenberg et al., "Effects of marihuana use on body weight and caloric intake in humans", Journal of Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 49 (1976): 79-84 as cited by L. Grinspoon, et al., in Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine (second edition), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997), 102.
R. Foltin et al., Behavioral analysis of marijuana effects on food intake in humans, Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 25 (1986): 577-582.
R. Foltin et al., Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory, Appetite 11 (1988): 1-14.
T. Plasse et al., Recent clinical experience with Dronabinol, Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 40 (1991): 695-700 as cited by L. Grinspoon, et al., in "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), 102.
H. Gross et al., A double-blind trial of delta-9-THC in primary anorexia nervosa, Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 3 (1983): 165-171 as cited by J. Joy et al., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), Section 4.21-.22 (uncorrected proofs copy).
Ibid.
--

THC may be useful in asthma as a bronchodilator and anti-inflammatory. According to the Australian National Task Force on Cannabis, "Smoked cannabis, and to a lesser extent oral THC, have an acute bronchodilatory effect in both normal persons and persons with asthma." Several human studies show this, and even Cannabis low in THC produces bronchodilation similar to the drug isoproterenol. , In England, the House of Lords 1998 "Ninth Report" on Cannabis states that cannabinoids are as effective as conventional asthma drugs. Synthetic THC produces less bronchodilator effect and shows a substantial delay when taken orally, and when delivered as an aerosol produced bronchial irritation as well as a shorter duration than obtained by smoking botanical Cannabis. Only one study has evaluated Cannabis’ synergistic anti-inflammatory and anti-asthmatic properties. Cannabis vaporization delivers cannabinoids without the non-therapeutic irritants in smoke while aerosol inhalers and sublingual tinctures could provide similar benefits to asthmatics and others.

Epilepsy is yet another condition which may benefit from THC. In one study, 2 of 5 cases of severe drug-resistant grand mal epilepsy were controllable with THC. Cannabis can also be helpful as an adjunct to conventional drugs like phenytoin and Phenobarbital.
-
Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder that afflicts nearly 2.5 million Americans. Patients suffering from epilepsy experience periodic, recurrent seizures triggered by the misfiring of certain brain cells. These seizures occur in various forms, ranging from mild to severe convulsions and loss of consciousness.

Standard treatment for epilepsy involves anti-convulsants. While there are several studies and references by the Institute of Medicine, House of Lords Science and Technology Committee, Australian National Task Force on Cannabis, and others regarding cannabis' anti-convulsant properties, there are few human studies specific to epilepsy. A 1975 case study reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that cannabis inhalation in conjunction with prescription medication effectively controlled epileptic seizures in a 24-year-old patient. Researchers concluded that: "this case suggests that marihuana may possess an anti-convulsant effect in human epilepsy." (1)

A subsequent, double-blind controlled study on the effects of the marijuana compound cannabidiol (CBD) on epilepsy yielded favorable results. "Fifteen patients suffering from secondary generalized epilepsy with temporal focus were randomly divided into two groups. Each patient received, in a double-blind procedure, 200-300 mg daily of CBD or placebo. … All patients and volunteers tolerated CBD very well and no signs of toxicity or serious side effects were detected on examination. Four of the eight CBD subjects remained almost free of convulsive crises throughout the experiment and three other patients demonstrated partial improvement on their clinical condition." (2)

The IOM's 1999 report, "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base," cites a pair of additional double-blind, placebo-controlled studies on CBD and epilepsy that found the cannabinoid had no effect on seizure frequency. A third one-patient open trial cited by the IOM determined that the administration of 900-1,200 mg. of CBD per day reduced seizure frequency. (3) A 1990 survey of 308 epileptic patients found that "marijuana use appeared to delay the first onset of complex partial seizures." (4)

The 1997 National Institutes of Health workshop on medical marijuana concluded that cannabinoids hold promise in the treatment of epilepsy. "Substantial experimental animal literature exists showing that various cannabinoids … have a substantial anticonvulsant effect in the control of various models of epilepsy, especially generalized and partial tonic-clonic seizures," the determined. "This is an area of potential value, especially for cannabis therapies by other than the smoked route." (5)

The 1998 House of Lords Science and Technology Committee expressed interest in the use of CBD to treat epilepsy, but refrained from recommending the drug because of the limited number of participants in controlled studies. (6) They noted that the British Medical Association determined that CBD "could possibly provide an adjunctive therapy for patients poorly controlled on presently available drugs." The BMA did not believe that THC demonstrated potential as a treatment for epilepsy. (7)

Because the data remains limited, and in some cases conflicting, on the potential of cannabis and cannabinoids to control epilepsy, patients use caution when considering marijuana therapy. Some animal studies and human anecdotal reports show that high doses of THC can trigger seizures. (8) For this reason, some physicians do not regard oral THC (Marinol) as a proper treatment for epilepsy. (9)

P. Consroe et al., "Anticonvulsant Nature of Marihuana Smoking," Journal of the American Medical Association 234 (1975): 306-307.
J. Cunha et al., "Chronic Administration of Cannabidiol to Healthy Volunteers and Epileptic Patients," Pharmacology 21 (1980): 175-185.
J. Joy et al., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base" Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), Table 4.4: Clinical Trails of Cannabinoids in Epileptics.
S. Ng et al., "Illicit drug use and the risk of new-onset seizures," American Journal of Epidemiology 132 (1990): 47-57.
National Institutes of Health, "Workshop on the Medical Utility of Marijuana, Report to the Director," Washington, D.C. (1997).
House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, "Ninth Report," London: United Kingdom (1998): Chapter 5, Section 5.31.
Ibid.
Ibid.
B. Zimmerman et al., "Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You?" A Factual Guide to the Medical Uses of Marijuana, New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing (1998), 100.
--

Depression and mental illness…

-
There are abundant historical references to the use of cannabis as a suggested treatment for mood disorders like depression. (1) However, human studies are scant and the results are mixed. A 1947 study of 50 depressed patients administered synthetic THC found the drug beneficial to 36 of the participants. (2) A double-blind controlled study conducted three years later on 57 patients reported that the administration of small doses of synthetic THC did not improve their symptoms. (3) A pair of more recent studies also yield conflicting results. One reported that cannabis helped relieve depression in cancer patients, while the other determined that THC failed to improve depression in eight hospitalised patients. (4)

A 1994 survey of 79 mental patients found that those who used cannabis reported relief from depression, anxiety, insomnia, and physical discomfort, as well as fewer hospitalizations. (5) Lastly, a 1996 study cited in the 1999 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report, "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base," found that Dronabinol (oral THC a.k.a. "Marinol") significantly assuaged mood disturbances and anorexia in 11 Alzheimer's patients. No side effects were observed. (6)

The conflicting data concerning cannabis and depression should caution patients considering experimenting with the drug therapeutically. Additionally, cannabis' ability to occasionally produce paranoia and other dysphorias (typically among inexperienced users) could heighten some patient's feelings of depression. Cannabis' most promising potential to mitigate symptoms of depression likely lies with patients who have previous experience with it, and are failing to respond to traditional therapies.

B. Zimmerman et al., "Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You?. A Factual Guide to the Medical Uses of Marijuana, New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing (1998), 138-139; L. Grinspoon et al., "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition) New haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997), 141.
G. Stockings, "A new euphoriant for depressive mental states," British Medical Journal 1 (1947): 918-922 as cited by L. Grinspoon et al., "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), 141.
C. Parker et al., "Synthetic cannabis preparations in psychiatry: I. Synhexyl," Journal of Mental Science 96 (1950): 276-279 as cited by L. Grinspoon et al., Marihuana: "The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), 141.
"Review Of Human Studies On Medical Use Of Marijuana," Dale Gieringer, Ph.D., (1996).
R. Warner et al., "Substance Abuse Among the Mentally Ill," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry (1994) as cited by Dale Gieringer, Ph.D. in "Review Of Human Studies On Medical Use Of Marijuana."
L. Volicer et al., "Effects of dronabinol on anorexia and disturbed behavior in patients with Alzheimer's disease," International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12 (1997): 913-919 as cited by J. Joy et al., Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base, Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), Section 4.37 (uncorrected proofs edition).
--

Schizophrenia…

-
Cannabis' impact on patients suffering from schizophrenia is not well understood and often disputed. The Australian National Task Force on Cannabis cites anecdotal clinical evidence that "schizophrenic patients who use cannabis and other drugs experience exacerbations of symptoms, and have a worse clinical course, with more frequent psychotic episodes than those who do not." (1) However, the researchers admit that "very few well controlled studies" have documented this relationship. (2)

In his book Marihuana The Forbidden Medicine, Dr. Lester Grinspoon (with James Bakalar) cites a pair of studies that found schizophrenic patients who used cannabis responded better to the disease than nonusers. One study reported that patients who smoked marijuana had "fewer delusions and, above all, fewer of the so-called negative symptoms, which include apathy, limited speech, and emotional unresponsiveness." (3) The other study concluded that those who used cannabis had a "lower rate of hospital admissions than those who used no drugs at all. [Respondents] said that cannabis helped them with anxiety, depression, and insomnia." (4) Grinspoon also notes that in his own clinical experience, schizophrenics who regularly use cannabis generally regard it as helpful. (5)

Emerging research on the endocannabinoid anandamide (a cannabis-like compound produced naturally by the brain) is allowing scientists to better understand the relationship between cannabis and schizophrenia. University of California at Irvine scientists found that anandamide acts as kind of a brake on neural activity in the brains of rats, and might be used to treat the side effects of diseases that cause uncontrollable movements. (6) Researchers reported that anandamide interferes with the effects of nerve cells that transmit dopamine, the message-carrying chemical responsible for stimulating movement and other motor behavior in the brain. Some scientists believe that uncontrolled dopamine production is responsible for some of the symptoms of schizophrenia. (7)

"Patients with schizophrenia and other diseases have reported that marijuana appears to relieve some of their symptoms, but scientists have never found a physiological reason why," explains lead researcher Daniele Piomelli. "By understanding how the anandamide system works similarly to marijuana, we can explore new ways to treat these diseases more effectively." (8)

Follow up research by Piomelli's team on 10 schizophrenic patients and a control group found dramatically elevated levels of anandamide in those suffering from the disease. (9) This finding implies that the schizophrenics may produce extra anandamide to cope with or mediate excess dopamine production. "The implication is that if a drug could inject or stimulate anandamide production it might be more effective than dopamine blocking drugs used for 40 years to treat schizophrenia," the Orange County (California) Register newspaper opined after reviewing Piomelli's work. (10)

Given the fact that research regarding cannabis' role in treating schizophrenia still remains in its infancy, prudence demands that patients suffering from the disease proceed cautiously before deciding whether to use medical cannabis for treatment.

W. Hall, et al., The health and Psychological Consequences of Cannabis Use, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing service (1994): Chapter 7: Section 6.4.2 (online edition).
Ibid.
V. Peralta et al., "Influence of Cannabis Abuse on Schizophrenic Psychopathology," Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 85 (1992): 127-130 as cited by L. Grinspoon, et al., in "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1997), 178.
R. Warner et al., "Substance Abuse Among the Mentally Ill: Prevalence, Reasons for Use, and Effects on Illness," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 64 (1994): 30-39 as cited by L. Grinspoon, et al., in "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), 178.
L. Grinspoon, et al., in "Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine" (second edition), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1999), 178.
"Marijuana-Like Chemicals Could Treat Disease," Reuters News Service, March 26, 1999.
Ibid.
Ibid.
"A Breakthrough Against Schizophrenia?" Orange County Register, May 20, 1999.
Ibid.
--

Tourette’s syndrome…

-
Tourette's Syndrome is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder that is characterized by sudden spasms, so called "tics" that occur especially in the facial muscles, neck, shoulders, and extremities. It is accompanied by grunts and other noises. This disease typically begins in late childhood and affects mostly males. A handful of documented case studies suggest inhaling cannabis produces beneficial effects on this syndrome. (1,2,3)

A German research team recently documented the successful treatment of Tourette's syndrome with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in an open, uncontrolled clinical trial. (4) Researchers reported that a 25-year old patient treated with 10 mg of THC experienced marked improvement of both vocal and motor tics associated with the disease. The patients total tic severity fell from 41 before treatment to 7 just two hours after consuming THC. "The improvement began 30 minutes after treatment and lasted for about seven hours," they wrote. "No adverse effects were reported." (5) The research team is planning to confirm their preliminary results in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study.

Researchers at the Institutes of Medicine (IOM) write in their 1999 report that "No clear link has been established between symptoms of Tourette's and cannabinoid sites or mechanism of action." They added, however, that: "The abundance of CB1 receptors in the basal ganglia and animal studies showing the involvement of cannabinoids in the control of movement suggest that cannabinoids might be useful in treating movement disorders in humans. Marijuana or CB1 receptor agonists might provide symptomatic relief from chorea, dystonia, some aspect of parkinsonism, and tics." (6)

Current research at the University of California at Irvine on the naturally occurring cannabis-like substance anandamide also indicates that cannabis may play a role in alleviating symptoms of Tourette's syndrome. UCI researchers found that anandamide interferes with the effects of nerve cells that transmit dopamine, the message-carrying chemical responsible for stimulating movement and other motor behavior in the brain. (7) Researchers believe that uncontrolled dopamine production may be responsible for the nervous tics and outbursts associated with Tourette's syndrome. (8)

"Patients with schizophrenia and other diseases have reported that marijuana appears to relieve some of their symptoms, but scientists have never found a physiological reason why," explains lead researcher Daniele Piomelli. "By understanding how the anandamide system works similarly to marijuana, we can explore new ways to treat these diseases more effectively." (9)

Piomelli did caution, however, that he found the regulatory effects of natural cannabis on dopamine production in the brain inadequate. Regardless, most preliminary research in this field implies that patients suffering from Tourette's syndrome or other dystonias may benefit from cannabis. If these findings are corroborated in better controlled trials it will be of great significance, since current drugs prescribed to treat these ailments are often inadequate. (10)

R. Sandyk et al., "Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome," Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 8 (1988): 445-445.
M. Hemming et al., "Effective treatment of Tourette's syndrome with marijuana," Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 7 (1993): 389-391.
K. Muller-Vahl et al., "Gilles de la Tourette-Syndrom: Einflub von Nikotin, Alkohol und marihuana auf die linkische Symptomatikt," Nervenarz 68 (1997): 985-989.
K. Muller-Vahl et al., "Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol," American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1999): 495.
Ibid.
J. Joy et al., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Washington D.C.: National Academy Press (1999), Section 4.32-4.33 (uncorrected proofs copy).
"Pot-Like Substance May Offer Tic, Shaking Relief," Orange County Register, March 25, 1999.
Ibid.
Ibid.
B. Zimmerman et al., Is "Marijuana the Right Medicine for You"? A Factual Guide to Medical Uses of Marijuana, New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing (1998), 136-137.
-

It is impossible to say what other therapeutic and medicinal uses Cannabis sativa may yet prove to have in store for us, especially as it continues to be illegal for researchers to obtain and use it in research.

Cannabis sativa in Environmental Health

Throughout history, cannabis and flax fibers are the dominant fibers for making paper. These fibers can be recycled approximately 8 times, compared with a maximum of 3 cycles for inferior wood fibers. For environmental health, industrial hemp fiber is also superior because it is a prolific annual crop requiring no toxic chemicals for commercial production, and preserves our dwindling forests. Increasing the use of hemp fiber in paper and textiles will contribute to reforestation of the planet, a crucial element in the restoration of the earth’s oxygen atmosphere. Hemp fiber makes the most prized clothing because of its extreme durability and increasing comfort with prolonged wear. The original Levi’s jeans, upon which the company built its reputation, were made of hemp fiber.

In 1937, with passage of the Marihuana Tax Act in Congress, Randolph Hearst won a coup for his monopoly of the newspaper industry in America. Prior to this, he monopolized the ownership of the newspapers. He invested his profits heavily in cornering the timber rights to America’s great Northwest woods, a huge reservoir of plant fiber that, while it was inferior in quality for paper and difficult to replace as a natural resource, was the only real alternative to hemp fiber. After making hemp, even industrial hemp, with no connection to the supposed drug problem, illegal, the Hearsts now monopolized the raw material even for their rivals in the print media, the dominant media of the day. It appears that Hearst agreed with his crony, John D. Rockefeller that “competition is a sin.” This is very similar to the way Rockefeller took control of the railroads that transported the oil of his competitors.

Hemp seed oil is another health marvel. The diesel engine was originally designed to run on hemp oil. Today, we also know that hemp seed oil is one of the richest and most balanced source of essential fatty acids (EFA).

Hemp seeds, besides their rich content of health-promoting oil, are one of nature’s most productive and nutritious sources of protein. Hulled hemp seeds are one of the most delicious and easily digestible protein rich snacks just by the handful, and make an exceptional condiment when added to sauces, sprinkled on yogurt or alternative ice creams such as Rice Dream, over cereals, salads, or many other creative uses.

Modalities for the use of the Cannabis-sativa

There are many alternative routes for self-administration of THC besides synthetic gelatin capsules. They all utilize the plant Cannabis sativa as the natural source of the (legal) drug THC. Each route of administration has its own advantages and drawbacks, so it is important to find the right one for your needs.

Smoking Cannabis sativa leaves or flower-buds provides a means of rapid systemic absorption. This provides rapid feedback for monitoring the appropriate dosage. As with all medicines, dosage is key.

The minimum dose for achieving the desired result is best, so take several small doses rather than one large one to avoid excess and its attendant side effects. If you are highly sensitive, try smoking leaves rather than buds to better regulate dosage.

Smoking puts active ingredients into the systemic circulation which is felt strongly in the central nervous system. To minimize unwanted elements of smoke and heat, a filtration through water in a water pipe is highly recommended. This is especially important since Cannabis smoke contains 30 to 40% more tar than tobacco smoke. Still, according to the American Cancer Institute, the risk of lung cancer begins to rise at about 4 cigarettes a day, which is more than most users smoke.

Eating Cannabis sativa is another route of administration. Cannabis sativa can be mixed directly into baked goods such as cookies or first extracted into an oil such as butter or ghee that is then used in the preparation of various foods.

When ingesting Cannabis sativa orally, it must first be absorbed in the digestive tract and passed through the liver before it appears in the systemic circulation. This means that subjective effects take longer to notice, making initial determination of the minimum effective dosage somewhat more challenging, as some patience is required. Also, more of the effect centers on generalized physical relaxation of the body and less on central nervous system effects.

Leaf flour may be prepared by straining leaves several times through a sieve to remove any stems. Leaves can first be crushed in a large zip lock bag using a rolling pin. You can then grind the leaves into a flour in a seed mill (coffee grinder) blender or food processor. Sauté up to 2 cups or 1/2 pound of fine leaf flour mixed into a pound of melted butter in a frying pan for 30 minutes on very low heat, stirring constantly so as not to burn it. A ceramic crock pot can be used if it will be dedicated for this purpose.

You can then add some of this butter and 2 whipped egg whites to any cookie recipe, by reducing the amount of flour in the recipe, since you have added the leaf flour. Other baked goods and a variety of other recipes can be used as well. If starting with a package mix for baking, add the butter, an extra egg and a little extra water if needed.

Leaf butter is made by filling a large pot (on an electric stove) or crock pot with a gallon of water. Bring the water to a boil and add a pound of butter plus a half pound of leaf. Lower the heat to a simmer and continue simmering for several hours, adding a total of 5-7 gallons over a 48 hour period. The last gallon of water is added during the final 5 hours of cooking. Then press the leaf matter to the bottom of the pot using a steamer basket. Let the pot cool and then scrape the butter off the top. Mulch the water and the leaf.

Tea is made by steeping leaves or a flower bud, perhaps combined with other therapeutic or flavorful herbs, for anywhere from a few minutes up to a couple hours in hot water, milk (e.g. whole cow’s milk), goat milk, soy milk, a seed milk (sunflower), nut milk (e.g. almond) or rice milk as a base. Since the active ingredients are oil soluble, you may notice an oil layer floating on the top of the tea. Buds may be used efficiently by saving them to make a second batch of tea. The potency or strength of the tea can be reduced by dilution if too strong, or increased by adding tincture (see below) if too weak.

Milk is made by simmering 2 heaping tablespoons of leaf flour (see above) in a cup of any milk, such as goat milk or a seed, nut or grain milk for 2 or more hours in a crock pot on low heat.

Tincture is made by extracting the medicinal properties of leaf or bud with vodka (potato is best for those with grain sensitivity) or Tequilla (100% blue agave). For fresh plant material, use 5 parts to 1 part alcohol. For dry material, use 10 parts to 1 part alcohol. Keep the mixture well sealed in a cool, dark place, preferably in an amber glass bottle, and shake it vigorously each day for at least 14 days. Tincture is useful for application topically, sublingually or internally. It can be added to a tea, mixed with other herbal tinctures or diluted in other drinks.

A compress for topical applications such as pain relief can be made by soaking a cotton cloth with tea or tincture. Leave the compress on for at least a half hour.

Proven : Cannabis is Safe Medicine

The journal PHARMACOLOGICAL REVIEWS reports that decades of research prove that, "Compared with legal drugs...marijuana does not pose greater risks." Yet based upon mortality statistics, we can safely conclude that cannabis is one of the safest medical drugs known, for, while prescription drugs, defined as safe by the FDA, kill up to 27,000 and aspirin up to 1,000 Americans per year, cannabis kills 0 per year. [Figures published recently in the medical literature conservatively estimate that over 100,000 Americans die each year from FDA-approved prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals.]

When we know the facts we can understand why in 1988, after extensive review of the scientific literature, the DEA's own administrative judge Frances Young concluded that ``Marijuana is one of the safest therapeutically active substances know to man.''

Opponents of legal cannabis access would have us believe that there is not enough research available to determine its safety. Nothing could be further from the truth. Cannabis is one of the most thoroughly researched drugs in history, and the evidence gathered over the centuries clearly proves that it is safe:

The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report (1894): an exhaustive seven-volume, 3,281-page report that concludes: "Moderate [cannabis] use produces practically no ill effects." , ,

The Panama Canal Military Study (1916-1929), amassing extensive data on the health impact of cannabis smoking upon American soldiers stationed in Panama, recommends "No steps be taken by the Canal Zone authorities to prevent the sale or use of Marihuana." The research also concludes that, "There is no evidence that Marihuana...is...'habit-forming.'" ,

The LaGuardia Report (1939-1944), commissioned by New York City Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, which included evidence gathered over thousands of years, concluded that "Smoking marihuana does not lead to addiction... does not lead to morphine, heroin, or cocaine addiction" and that "the publicity concerning the catastrophic effects of marihuana smoking in New York City is unfounded." ,

The Baroness Wootton Report (1968), commissioned by the Advisory Committee on Drug Dependence of the United Kingdom Home Office, concluded, "There is no evidence that...serious physical dangers are directly associated with the smoking of cannabis." The report also noted that "Cannabis use does not lead to heroin addiction" and that "there is no evidence that [cannabis]...is producing in otherwise normal people conditions of dependence or psychosis, requiring medical treatment." ,

The HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL MENTAL HEALTH LETTER reports the findings of other major cannabis studies:

In three major studies conducted in Jamaica, Costa Rica, and Greece, researchers have compared heavy long-term cannabis users with non-users and found no evidence of intellectual or neurological damage, no changes in personality, and no loss of the will to work or participate in society. The Jamaican study states that, even as cannabis use in Jamaica "is pervasive" and is used "in heavier quantities with greater THC potency than in the U.S.," its use is "without deleterious social or psychological consequences."

What's more, the three studies cited, the largest human cannabis studies to date, also revealed that heavy long term cannabis users scored slightly higher on IQ tests, had slightly lower rates of illness and cancer, and lived longer on average than non-users. Users also proved to be more relaxed and sociable than non-users. , , The best evidence indicates, contrary to GovtMedia disinformation, that cannabis is safe and good for you.

In line with the findings of the Panama Canal study and the LaGuardia Report, current research confirms that the addictive potential of cannabis is very low. The journal TRENDS IN PHARMACOLOGICAL SCIENCES states that research shows cannabis has "limited potential for development of...psychological dependence due to the weak reinforcing properties of Delta-9-THC." BRAIN RESEARCH journal observes, "cannabinoid dependence and withdrawal phenomena are minimal."

Research proves that cannabis is nontoxic. For example, in the journal FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED TOXICOLOGY, Dr. William Slikker, director of the Neurotoxicology Division of the National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), described the health of monkeys exposed to very high levels of cannabis for an extended period:

The general health of the monkeys was not compromised by a year of marijuana exposure as indicated by weight gain, carboxyhemoglobin and clinical chemistry/hematology values. When THE ARKANSAS TIMES asked Dr. Merle Paule of NCTR about evidence of cannabis toxicity and the health of the monkeys in the study, Dr. Paule said, "There's just nothing there. They were all fine."

The journal TOXICOLOGY LETTERS published a study that found no link between cannabis smoking and lung cancer. The seven researchers in the study concluded:

It has been suggested that marijuana smoking is a proximal cause of respiratory cancer. However, these intimations have not been borne out by epidemiological investigation. Not only is the evidence linking cannabis smoking to cancer negative, the largest human studies cited indicated that cannabis users had lower rates of cancer than nonusers. What's more, those who smoked both cannabis and tobacco had lower rates of lung cancer than those who smoked only tobacco -- a strong indication of chemo-prevention , , Even more, in 1975 researchers at the Medical College of Virginia found that cannabis showed powerful anti-tumor activity against both benign and malignant tumors (the government then banned all future cannabis/cancer research). In fact, the NEW ENGLISH DISPENSATORY of 1764 recommends boiled cannabis roots for the elimination of tumors. Powerful evidence that cannabis not only does not cause cancer, but that it may prevent and even cure cancer.

The few studies that the GovtMedia drums into the public mind over and over, which claim to show that cannabis is a harmful drug, are almost all the work of the government's top hired gun, Dr. Gabriel Nahas. The NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE described Nahas's work as "psychopharmacological McCarthyism that compels him to use half-truths, innuendo and unverified assertions." The JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION also condemned his work, stating, "Examples of biased selection and...omissions of facts abound in every chapter."

Conclusion:

Not only does the best scientific research overwhelmingly confirm that cannabis is both an effective medicine and a safe drug, but that it may be both chemo-preventive and therapeutic and generally beneficial to health. What this shows us most clearly, in light of the consensus to the contrary, is the enormous power of a Big Lie.

With its vast resources, the "GovtMedia elite" is able to fabricate and fob off a pharmacological fraud against both cannabis and the public interest. Through sheer repetition and consistent suppression of contrary information, they are able to construct an edifice of public consensus, which even the hardest scientific facts fail to topple.

The truth is no stronger than the ability of true information to surpass the public distribution of false and misleading information. The GovtMedia has a greater ability to distribute a Big Lie than any other sector of society has to distribute the truth. However, this report right here contains copious quantities of carefully referenced scientific facts that consistently and conclusively confirm that cannabis is safe --thereby exploding the GovtMedia's Big Lie.

As truth is only as powerful as it is known, do all that is in your power to make these powerful facts known, that we might put an end to the destructive and illogical prohibition of the proven safe and effective drug cannabis, for possession of which 10 million Americans have been arrested since 1965.

Epilogue

The modern American culture incarcerates a higher percentage of its population than any other in history. Most of these individuals who help to make up a vast market of near-slave labor for private money interests, have committed acts which historically have never been classified as crimes, such as the medicinal or other personal use of a plant provided by God through nature. In true, classical law, a crime demands an injured party. In most crimes today, the injured party is the ‘criminal’. As laws multiply, including outrageous tomes with thousands of pages, such as NAFTA and GATT, which no member of Congress or President even read before voting in and signing into law, ultimately there are so many laws, especially those with crimes contrived where no party is injured, that everyone is a criminal, and only the arbitrary and capricious use of power against those segments of society who are in disfavor determine who lands in prison and who remains ‘free’ in a society largely composed of wage-slaves.

As an example, consider Peter McWilliams. Peter was on a number of prescription medications for a life-threatening illness, and in order to keep them down, the only solution that worked was the use of Cannabis together with adequate rest and other stress reduction measures. Then, when confined to jail by Federal Judge George King who failed to allow him access to an effective anti-emetic, Peter was found choked to death in a state where the voters had passed a law specifically for seriously ill people like Peter to have access to medical Cannabis. Through negligence to stop and correct wrongs such as these, many government officials are betraying the public trust by perjuring their sacred oaths of office and committing heinous acts of genocide and apartheid for which they will have to be held accountable through the world court system.

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Cannabis in Costa Rica: A Study of Chronic Marijuana Use, 1980-82, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 3401 Science Center Philadelphia, PA.
TRENDS IN PHARMACOLOGICAL SCIENCES: Neurobiology of Marijuana Abuse. 1992, 13:201-206. pg. 203.
BRAIN RESEARCH: Chronic cannabinoid administration alters cannabinoid receptor binding in rat brain: a quantitative autoradiographic study. 1993, 616:293-302. pg. 300.
FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED TOXICOLOGY: Chronic Marijuana Smoke Exposure in the Rhesus Monkey. 1991, Aug; 17, 321-34.
THE ARKANSAS TIMES: Refer Madness. 9/16/93.
TOXICOLOGY LETTERS, "No Increase in Carcinogen-DNA Adducts in the Lungs of Monkeys Exposed Chronically to Marijuana Smoke," 1992, Dec;63 (3): 321-32.
The Emperor Wears No Cloths. Jack Herer, Queen of Clubs Pub, 1991.
Ganja in Jamaica: A Medical Anthropological Study of Chronic Marijuana Use. 1975. Anchor Books, NY.
Cannabis in Costa Rica: A Study of Chronic Marijuana Use, 1980-82, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 3401 Science Center Philadelphia, PA.
The Emperor Wears No Cloths. Jack Herer, Queen of Clubs Pub, 1991.
Marijuana: The First 12,000 Years. Plenum Press, 1980.
The Great Drug War, Macmillan Publishing, 1987.
Marijuana Policy Project, 202-462-5747, P.O. Box 77492, Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C. 20013. http://www.mpp.org, [email protected]